Non-cognitive Skills in Developing Countries

非認知スキルの途上国での展開

 Yujiro Yamazaki

　労働市場において認知スキルと仕事の特殊スキルにならび、非認知スキルは労働者のスキルセットの主要な1つの要素として見られており、特に現在、第四次産業革命に対応していく為には非認知スキルを育て、変化に富む未来へ対応する柔軟性を人々が重要であると指摘されています (World Bank 2017)。非認知スキルの用法は様々ですが、認知的スキルが読み書き計算を指すのに対し(Green, 2011)、非認知スキルで焦点が向けられているのは、読み書き計算などの認知スキルでは測定できない思考、感情、行動のパターンを含む特性を指し（Borghans et al. 2008）、誠実さや忍耐力、協調性など、様々な能力を対象としています (World Bank 2017)。

　非認知スキルが個人の教育達成、収入向上、労働市場への参画において重要な要素であることが様々な研究で明らかにされています。非認知スキルはより高い収入と強く相関関係を持ち、賃金を向上させることが指摘されています(Heckman et al., 2006)。Mueller and Plug (2006) によると、非認知スキルの収入への影響は認知的スキルと同等の効果があると言われています。また、非認知スキルを明らかにすることで、労働市場の成果を予測することに寄与することも指摘されています(Borghans et al., 2008)。近年では、長期にわたるゴールを追求する忍耐強さを指すグリットと呼ばれる要素が注目されています。教育達成度と学業成績がグリッドとの相関がIQよりも高いことが指摘され(Duckworth et al. 2014)、世界銀行のSkills Towards Employability and Productivity (STEP) Skills Measurement によると、貧困女性のエンパワーメントにおいて、このグリットが重要な要素であることを明らかにしました (World Bank 2017)。
　非認知スキルに力を入れているのは先進国のみならず、近年では様々な国で取り組まれています。メキシコは、青年期の発達における重要な要素として社会感情的スキルを高めるために、中等教育においてConstruye-Tプログラムを導入し、10〜12年生の生徒に対して社会感情スキルを伸ばす一連のアクティビティを実施しています。また、ザンビアでは、セルフマネジメント、他者との関係、イノベーション、起業家精神、生産性、社会心理的スキルを含んだ新しいカリキュラムを推進し、非認知スキルの育成に力を入れています (Mulenga et al. 2019)。
　このような取り組みがある中、課題も指摘されています。ザンビアにおける新しいカリキュラムは既存のものに比べ、コストがかかる一方、政府からの財政の増加がないため、教員の養成を含む新たなカリキュラムにかかるコストにおいて課題が残っています (Mulenga et al. 2019)。また非認知スキルの測定方法にも課題があり、認知的スキルのように標準化されたテストでは測定がしづらい点や、各国の文化に強く影響する為、画一的な測定には今後の研究が必要とされています (Zhou 2016)。このような課題に取り組みつつ、途上国においても非認知的スキルの養成が促進していくことが今後一層注目されていきます。

　Currently, non-cognitive skills are seen as one of the significant components of workers' skill sets, along with cognitive skills and specialized skills for the labor market. As the fourth industrial revolution creates new jobs and demands more skilled workers with new technologies, people need the flexibility to develop non-cognitive skills and adapt to a changing future (World Bank, 2017). The terminology is varied, but while cognitive skills refer to literacy and numeracy (Green, 2011), the focus of non-cognitive skills is on a group of traits over multiple domains that contain behaviors and attitudes（Borghans et al. 2008）. Non-cognitive skills cover a range of abilities, such as conscientiousness, perseverance, and cooperativeness (World Bank, 2017).
　Studies have shown that non-cognitive skills are essential factors for achieving higher levels of education, and for increasing income and participation in the labor market. Non-cognitive skills have been shown to correlate strongly with higher income and increased wages (Heckman et al., 2006). According to Mueller and Plug (2006), the impact of non-cognitive skills on income is equally as effective as the effect of cognitive skills. It has also been pointed out that clear assessment of non-cognitive skills can help predict labor market outcomes (Borghans et al., 2008). In recent years, an element called grit (i.e., perseverance in pursuing long-term goals) has attracted research attention. It has been pointed out that educational achievement (a variable related to grit) has a stronger correlation with academic performance than IQ (Duckworth et al., 2014), and according to the World Bank's Skills Towards Employability and Productivity (STEP) Skills measurement, grit is a key factor for empowering poor women (World Bank, 2017).
　In recent years, non-cognitive skills have been addressed not only in developed countries but also in various developing countries. Mexico has introduced the Construye-T program in secondary education to enhance socio-emotional skills as a critical component of adolescent development, with a series of activities to develop socio-emotional skills for grade 10-12 students. Zambia is likewise focusing on developing non-cognitive skills by promoting a new curriculum that includes self-management, relationships with others, innovation, entrepreneurship, productivity, and psychosocial skills (Mulenga et al. 2019).
　While there are such initiatives, various issues have also been pointed out. The new curriculum in Zambia is more costly than the existing one, and there is still a challenge in covering the cost of the new curriculum, including teacher training, as there has been no increase in government funding  (Mulenga et al. 2019). There is also a problem with how to measure non-cognitive skills. Unlike standardized tests of cognitive skills, non-cognitive skills are challenging to measure and are strongly influenced by the culture of each country (Zhou, 2016). Addressing these challenges and promoting the development of non-cognitive skills in developing countries will continue to be a topic that receives attention.

References:

Borghans, L., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J. J., and Ter Weel, B. (2008). The economics and
psychology of personality traits. Journal of Human Resources,43(4), 972-1059.
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., and Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6):1087.

Green, F. (2011). What is skill? An inter-disciplinary synthesis. Centre for Learning and Life Changes in Knowledge Economies and Societies.
Heckman, J. J. J., Stixrud, J., and Urzua, S. (2006). The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3):411–482. 
Mueller, G. and Plug, E. (2006). Estimating the effect of personality on male and female earnings. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 60(1):3–22.
Mulenga, I. M. and  Kabombwe ,Y. M. (2019) A Competency-Based Curriculum for Zambian Primary and Secondary Schools: Learning from Theory and some Countries around the World.  International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 7 (2): 117-130. 

 World Bank (2017) Non-cognitive skills: What are they and why should we care? World Bank Retrived from https://blogs.worldbank.org/education/non-cognitive-skills-what-are-they-and-why-should-we-care
Zhou, K. (2016) Non-cognitive skills:  Definitions, measurement and malleability.  Background paper prepared for the 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report Education for people and planet: Creating sustainable futures for all. UNESCO.